Friday, September 6, 2019
Improvement of the International Trade Essay Example for Free
Improvement of the International Trade Essay Introduction Organizations are facing increased global competition, economic uncertainties, and changing markets. Technology is changing the way we conduct business and manage information. Outsourcing of goods and services enables companies to take advantage of lower costs in areas such as labor, energy, land and capital. By doing this, companies hope to lower their overall cost structure, improve profit margins, and enhance product quality, reliability and distribution, thus allowing them to compete more effectively. Suppliers and vendor partners may be located in the same city, region or country. But they are just as likely to be located halfway around the world, adding new challenges to business management. The growth of international strategic partnerships has risen exponentially in the last twenty years. Competing in a global marketplace has made it increasingly important to align business strategies with a risk management strategy that includes strengthening global supply chains and vendor partnerships. In the near future, it is supply chains that will compete, not companies. Global supply chains must be carefully selected and monitored to ensure the competitive edge required to achieve success in the global market place. Typically, the first order of business has been logistics and operations. 1. Logistics moves the entire economy Economic developments in recent years have led to the creation of complex company networks and systems of goods flow in the process, the globalization of procurement, production and sales as well as the division of labor have increased. In addition, the complexity of international logistics systems in many sectors has grown as a result of increasing product variations and differentiation. Another factor is that many companies are concentrating on their core skills and are reducing their vertical integration. The efficient management of the resulting global flows of goods has boosted both the business and economic significance of logistics. Structure of Global Trade International trade, both in terms of value and tonnage, has been a growing trend in the global economy. It is important to underline when looking at the structure of global trade that it is not nations that are trading, but mostly corporations with the end products mostly consumed by individuals. Inter and intra corporate trade is taking place across national jurisdictions is accounted as international trade. The emergence of the current structure of global trade can mainly be articulated within three major phases: †¢ First phase (immobile factors of production). Concerns a conventional perspective on international trade that prevailed until the 1970s where factors of production were much less mobile. Prior to the end of World War I, global trade was mainly structured by colonial relations. Particularly, there was a limited level of mobility of raw materials, parts and finished products. After World War I international trade became fairly regulated with impediments such tariffs , quotas and limitations to foreign ownership. Trade mainly concerned a range of specific products, namely commodities, (and very few services) that were not readily available in regional economies. Due to regulations, protectionism and fairly high transportation costs, trade remained limited and delayed by inefficient freight distribution. In this context, trade was more an exercise to cope with scarcity than to promote economic efficiency. †¢ Second phase (mobility of factors of production). From the 1980s, the mobility of factors of production, particularly capital, became possible. The legal and physical environment in which international trade was taking place lead to a better realization of the comparative advantages of specific locations. Concomitantly, regional trade agreements emerged and the global trade framework was strengthened from a legal and transactional standpoint (GATT/WTO). In addition, containerization provided the capabilities to support more complex and long distance trade flows, as did the growing air traffic. Due to high production (legacy) costs in old industrial regions, activities that were labor intensive were gradually relocated to lower costs locations. The process began as a national one, then went to nearby countries when possible and afterwards became a truly global phenomenon. Thus, foreign direct investments surged, particularly towards new manufacturing regions as multinational corporations became increasingly flexible in the global positioning of their assets. †¢ Third phase (global production networks). There is a growth in international trade, now including a wide variety of services that were previously fixed to regional markets and a surge in the mobility of the factors of production. Since these trends are well established, the priority is now shifting to the geographical and functional integration of production, distribution and consumption with the emergence of global production networks. Complex networks involving flows of information, commodities, parts and finished goods have been set, which in turn demands a high level of command of logistics and freight distribution. In such an environment, powerful actors have emerged which are not directly involved in the function of production and retailing, but mainly taking the responsibility of managing the web of flows. The global economic system is thus characterized by a growing level of integrated services, finance, retail, manufacturing and nonetheless distribution, which in turn is mainly the outcome of improved transport and logistics, a more efficient exploitation of regional comparative advantages and a transactional environment supportive of the legal and financial complexities of global trade. Trade Facilitation The volume of exchanged goods and services between nations is taking a growing share of the generation of wealth, mainly by offering economic growth opportunities in new regions and by reducing the costs of a wide array of manufacturing goods. By 2007, international trade surpassed for the first time 50% of global GDP, a twofold increase in its share since 1950. The facilitation of trade involves how the procedures regulating the international movements of goods can be improved. It depends on the reduction of the general costs of trade, which considers transaction, tariff, transport and time costs, often labeled as the Four Ts†of international trade. United nations estimates have underlined that for developing countries a 10% reduction in transportation cost could be accompanied with a growth of about 20% in international and domestic trade. Thus, the ability to compete in a global economy is dependent on the transport system as well as a trade facilitation framework with activities including: †¢ Distribution-based. A multimodal and intermodal freight transport system composed of modes, infrastructures and terminals that spans across the globe. It insures a physical capacity to support trade and its underlying supply chains. †¢ Regulation-based. Customs procedures, tariffs, regulations and handling of documentation. They insure that trade flows abide to the rules and regulations of the jurisdictions they cross. Cross-border clearance, particularly in developing countries, can be a notable trade impediment with border delays, bottlenecks and long customer clearance times. †¢ Transaction-based. Banking, finance, legal and insurance activities where accounts can be settled and risk mitigated. They insure that the sellers of goods and services are receiving an agreed upon compensation and that the purchasers have a legal recourse if the outcome of the transaction is judged unsatisfactory or is insured if a partial or full loss incurs. The quality, cost, and efficiency of these services influence the trading environment as well as the overall costs linked with the international trade of goods. Many factors have been conductive to trade facilitation in recent decades, including integration processes, standardization, production systems, transport efficiency and transactional efficiency: †¢ Integration processes, such as the emergence of economic blocks and the decrease of tariffs at a global scale through agreements, promoted trade as regulatory regimes were harmonized. One straightforward measure of integration relates to custom delays, which can be a significant trade impediment since it adds uncertainty in supply chain management. The higher the level of economic integration, the more likely the concerned elements are to trade. International trade has consequently been facilitated by a set of factors linked with growing levels of economic integration, the outcome of processes such as the European Union or th e North American Free Trade Agreement. The transactional capacity is consequently facilitated with the development of transportation networks and the adjustment of trade flows that follows increased integration. Integration processes have also taken place at the local scale with the creation of free trade zones where an area is given a different governance structure in order to promote trade, particularly export oriented activities. In this case, the integration process is not uniform as only a portion of a territory is involved. China is a salient example of the far-reaching impacts of the setting of special economic zones operating under a different regulatory regime. †¢ Standardization concerns the setting of a common and ubiquitous frame of reference over information and physical flows. Standards facilitate trade since those abiding by them benefit from reliable, interoperable and compatible goods and services which often results in lower production, distribution and maintenance costs. Measurement units were among the first globally accepted standards (metric system) and the development of information technologies eventually led to common operating and telecommunication systems. It is however the container that is considered to be the most significant international standard for trade facilitation. By offering a load unit that can be handled by any mode and terminal with the proper equipment, access to international trade is improved. †¢ Production systems are more flexible and embedded. It is effectively productive to maintain a network of geographically diversified inputs, which favors exchanges of commodities, parts and services. Information technologies have played a role by facilitating transactions and the management of complex business operations. Foreign direct investments are commonly linked with the globalization of production as corporations invest abroad in search of lower production costs and new markets. China is a leading example of such a process, which went on par with a growing availability of goods and services that can be traded on the global market. †¢ Transport efficiency has increased significantly because of innovations and improvements in the modes and infrastructures in terms of their capacity and throughput. Ports are particularly important in such a context since they are gateways to international trade through maritime shipping networks. As a result, the transferability of commodities, parts and finished goods has improved. Decreasing transport costs does more than increasing trade; it can also help change the location of economic activities. Yet, transborder transportation issues remain to be better addressed in terms of capacity, efficiency and security. †¢ Transactional efficiency. The financial sector also played a significant role in integrating global trade, namely by providing investment capital and credit for international commercial transactions. For instance, a letter of credit may be issued based upon an export contract. An exporter can thus receive a payment guarantee from a bank until its customer finalizes the transaction upon delivery. This is particularly important since the delivery of international trade transactions can take several weeks due to the long distances involved. During the transfer, it is also common that the cargo is insured in the event of damage, theft or delays, a function supported by insurance companies. Also, global financial systems permit to convert currencies according to exchange rates that are commonly set by market forces, while some currencies, such as the Chinese Yuan, are set by policy. Monetary policy can thus be a tool, albeit contentious, used to influence trade. The close relationship between international economic growth and logistics Mobility is a critical condition for gains to be achieved in productivity, growth and employment in a macroeconomic context. The connection between economic growth and demand for product-transporting services is the result of various effects. These effects can clearly show the growing significance of the economic sector of goods distribution: 1 The effect of goods volume For a long time, it was assumed that in highly developed economies fewer and fewer quantities of goods were produced for the macrologistics system and that the transport volume rose at a slower pace than the economy. Today, it can be assumed that the development actually goes in the opposite direction as a result of the increasing inter-company division of labor created by intensified outsourcing in some highly developed countries. Transport intensity that is, transport performance per production quantity unit increases for many types of goods. Individual parts or components of a product are transported numerous times during various stages of the value chain, e.g., transports between plants. 2 The effect of goods structure In highly developed economies, the number of high-quality consumer and production goods rises. The share of mass goods, on the other hand, stagnates or even falls. The distribution of goods then shifts to high-quality products that must be shipped quickly. Because of the relatively low costs, road transports Road transport generally benefit. Railroads and inland water transports generally suffer because of their low speed. 3 The effect of logistics Logistics systems constantly undergo optimization. Supply chain management Supply chain management, production-synchronization deliveries that employ just-in-time Just-in-time concepts, the forgoing of storage and global outsourcing are just a few examples of this. But the application of modern logistics concepts affects the economic sector of goods distribution. This is because the new logistics focus of industrial and trade companies has altered the demands placed on the goods-distribution system. Road transports can react relatively flexibly and well to these demands. Railroads and inland water transports have a difficult time making this switch. At the same time, air-freight transports profit from time-critical shipments. 4 The effect of integration The creation of large economic regions gives rise to international, cross-border logistics systems. For instance, the European Union and regulations from the World Trade Organization [World Trade Organization (WTO) have propelled globalization Globalization in the goods-distribution sector. As economic regions spread, cross-border trade expands and the distances that must be covered by logistics systems lengthen. The effect of integration describes the increasing demands placed on the economic sector of goods distribution that are arising from the creation of larger economic regions and cross-border logistics systems. Conclusion: In all likelihood, globalization will continue and intensify. Trade is critical to economic growth and to global development. Trade facilitation has been pointed out as the lowest-hanging fruit in this respect. It has also been argued that logistics services play an important role in matching entrepreneurs in poor countries with foreign customers, whether these are retailers or downstream manufacturers. In particular, as the traditional wholesalers are increasingly being bypassed in modern supply chains, developing countries need to ensure that their entrepreneurs have access to modern intermediaries that can help match local suppliers with foreign buyers and with ensuring that products meet quality as well as time reliability requirements. The future growth of world trade will not be evenly spread, any more than world trade has ever been evenly spread in any period in world history. Individual countries are in very different positions with respect to their ability to benefit from world trade. Part of that is luck – having a coast, and rich neighbors help. But part of it is skill. Countries that are open to world trade, that create the infrastructure, and above all the right attitude, will be best placed to weather the current hiatus more successfully, and to prosper in the years ahead. References: http://www.dhl-discoverlogistics.com/cms/en/course/trends/macroeconomics.jsp http://www.na-businesspress.com/Wisma.pdf http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch5en/conc5en/ch5c2en.html http://www.unece.org.unecedev.colo.iway.ch/fileadmin/DAM/trade/agr/meetings/ge.01/document.r/wppdf.pdf
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Interpersonal communication Essay
Interpersonal communication Essay                Interpersonal communication is defined as the interaction between two or more individuals. Where this is the case, the tendency for conflicts to take place is almost inevitable. This is because most people do not have the same opinions, needs and/or mindsets. The effects of conflicts can be disruptive to relationships. However, if handled well, conflicts can contribute positively by improving understanding and tolerance among people, as well as strengthening the bonds between them. Thus, the style that one employs in expressing and managing interpersonal conflicts plays a crucial role in maintaining and improving the quality of communication in his/her relationship.                The movie Parenthood features several conflicts between its characters. The nature of conflicts varies, as well as the style characters adopt in reacting to and resolving conflicts which arise. Gill and Karen, the main characters of the movie, often face disagreements like every married couple does. However, the greatest argument between them arises when Gill comes home angry after quitting his job one day and having Karen inform him that she is pregnant. Being in an easily irritable state at that time, Karens pregnancy did not bring joy to him. Instead, he reacts to her negatively, making her feel as if he did not want the baby. This created a disconfirming communication climate between them. Karen feels that she is underappreciated and the defensive mechanism in her is activated. They begin arguing about the severity of each others lost because of the unexpected baby. They both react to the situation with direct aggressio n; verbally attacking and insulting the other partys position. As a result, the issue was not resolved but amplified.                In actual fact, the impact of the conflict could have been reduced if a different style of expression was used. For example, having known that Gill had just lost his job and was in a foul mood, Karen could choose to withhold the news of her pregnancy until later when Gills emotional turbulence has settled. This non-assertive style may be more appropriate in view of the situation at hand. Also, she could be more supportive and understanding towards his decision. According to Jack Gibb, empathy contributes greatly to a positive relational climate. Being able to accept anothers feelings and putting oneself in their place would make them feel valued and cared about. This encourages them to open up to the other party, making communication much more effective.                However, non-assertion should only be used sparingly because it does not go to the root of the problem. In order to achieve a satisfying resolution, Gill and Karen should discuss the issue later in a calm and peaceful manner, adopting the assertive style of communication. They should allow each other to express their thoughts and feelings directly about the issue and then coming up with a win-win solution. Both parties should respect each other and their discussion should be problem oriented- finding a way in which both parties needs are satisfied and working out some arrangement which makes everyone feel like a winner (Adler, 2003, p.229).                Another instance of conflict also occurs between Suzan, Gills sister, and her husband, Nathan. Their problem revolves around the upbringing style of their daughter, Patty. Nathan insists that Patty should be given strict education in all aspects, despite her young age, in order for her full potential to be utilised. Suzan, on the other hand, feels that her daughter should be given a normal childhood. Besides that, she also feels that her husband is being too uptight and controlling, always behaving as if he knows best. This is seen when Nathan insists that they should only have one child despite Suzans attempt to re-discuss the issue with him. However, instead of confronting the problem, Suzan chooses to be passive aggressive. She pretends to put up with his practices such as power-eating but secretly chows down sweets and chocolates as a symbol of anger and discontent. Eventually, her approach no longer calms her anger and she finally tells Nathan that she is leaving him.                There are several factors which contribute to the aggravation of their conflict. Primarily, Nathans controlling and always certain behavior often causes Suzan to feel that her opinions and feelings are unimportant. He often imposes his way of life on her with little regard to her needs. In addition to that, he also rarely accepts and acknowledges her suggestions and ideas. For instance, when Suzan tells him that Patty should be allowed to behave more like a normal child instead of constantly being strictly guided, he ridicules her frustration and rejects her concern. In another context, Suzans method of handling her unhappiness- passive aggression- is also not an effective manner. It not only does not allow Nathan to know his mistakes, it creates an illusion which shows as if she is happy with her situation.                The resolution of the conflict, as seen in the ending of the movie, was when Nathan finally realises his fault after having Suzan leave him. This indirect communication used by Suzan is nonetheless effective, even though there could be a possibility of Nathan misinterpreting her intentions. Her extreme measures lead Nathan to re-evaluate his behavior and discover that his methods in handling their relationship are inappropriate. Finally, he apologises to her sincerely and receives her forgiveness. Since then, his behavior changes for the better and their relationship becomes stronger.                Aside from marital conflicts, there are also conflicts between parent and child in the movie. For example, the relationship between Gill and his son, Kevin. Kevin is a very sensitive and emotional child. As a result, Gill has to be extra careful in handling him. Conflicts often arise when Kevin becomes upset by something trivial. For example, when Kevin thinks of himself as being abnormal because he was seeing a psychiatrist, Gill has to comfort and ensure him that things were alright. In this situation, Gill adopts an indirect communication approach. He tells Kevin that he was seeing a psychiatrist not because he was sick or abnormal, only more prone to worry than others and that the doctor was there to help him conquer this anxiety. He then shifts Kevins focus from the topic to his upcoming birthday celebration. This lights up Kevins mood and resolves the tension between them. Gills method, in this case, is effective beca use any other method may have irritated Kevin further. Also, as a loving and supportive father, Gill often tries to maintain a confirming communication climate between them. He displays great levels of empathy and equality when interacting with Kevin. He tries to understand his sons needs and emotions instead of dictating them based on his personal experiences. Thus, because of his efforts, the conflicts that arise between them each time is resolved appropriately.                In conclusion, conflicts will always be prevalent in any interpersonal relationships. Be it between husband and wife, parent and child or friends, conflict is sure to arise because of the unique difference between every individual. It is how people manage and express the conflicts that would determine whether the resolution is satisfying for all parties. Thus, it is crucial that one be able to adopt the proper style in expressing his/her dissatisfaction based on the situation at hand in order to reduce the impact of conflicts and maintain healthy interpersonal relationships. Bibliography: Adler, R.B., Rodman, G. (2003) Understanding Human Communication. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Comparison of an Evil mastermind in Shakespeare’s Othello and MacDonald
Iago is one of the most renowned villains of pre-modern literature, as first introduced in Shakespeare’s Othello. His deceiving personality and complex nature is painted such that readers are amazed by his ingenious schemes. At the beginning of Shakespeare’s Othello, Iago is represented as trustworthy and honest, but readers soon realize that he is the opposite of what he seems. Even though Iago’s personality and thoughts are revealed less in MacDonald’s Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet), he carries on the same immoral legacy as in Othello. Throughout the plays, he turns his friends against one another who look to him for guidance and support. Iago thirsts to upgrade this status in society which causes him to take advantage of peoples’ good-nature and even comes to an extreme of killing anyone who stands between him and his schemes. In Shakespeare’s Othello and McDonald’s Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet), Iago manipula tes and deceives both Othello and Desdemona by his language and personality, which leads to different results. The personalities of Othello and Desdemona have been portrayed differently throughout the two plays and are susceptible to the mind games of Iago. In Shakespeare’s Othello, Othello is a character with depth that has a genuine personality. He is seen as being too trustworthy and continuously tries to look for the good in people. Despite his honoured reputation in the state and status as a general, he is ridiculed by his society because of his dark completion. Othello recognizes himself as an outsider and at times is extremely self-conscientious. His quality to be judgmental towards himself and his reputation in the eyes of others makes him a target for Iago. Were I the Moor, I would not b... ...espeare’s Othello. The actions of Othello and Desdemona within the two plays are directed by Iago. He uses his reputation and finds flaws within the personality of others for his own benefit. Within Shakespeare’s Othello and MacDonald’s Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet), Iago misleads Othello and Desdemona which leads to two different outcomes. Works Cited MacDonald, Ann-Marie. Goodnight Desdemona (good Morning Juliet). New York: Grove, 1998. PrintShakespeare, William, and David M. Bevington. Othello. Toronto: Bantam, 1988. Print. Philip, McGuire C. "Othello as an "Assay of Reason"" Shakespeare Quarterly 24.2 (1973): 198-209. Print. Laura, Snyder. "Constance Ledbelly's Birthday: Construction of the Feminist Archetype of the Self in Ann-Marie MacDonald's Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet)." Text & Presentation 2005 (2005): 43-55. Print.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Magical Realism: Theory and History :: Magical Realism Literature Papers
Magical Realism: Theory and History While reading Franz Roh, Angel Flores, Amaryll Chanady, and Luis Leal, I have learned many things about magical realism. I also learned that there are many different definitions for magical realism. I have learned that magical realism is not considered a fairy tale. Amaryll Chanady feels that magical realism is focused more toward reality. However, Luis Leal feels that magical realism is used to express emotions. While reading these essays and finding some research on magical realism, I found that many people have many different views on what magical realism is. By doing research, I have found that it can mean many different things, and it is exciting to learn about something as interesting as magical realism is. Learning about magical realism has been very interesting for me. When reading Franz Roh, I learned a lot about Post- Expressionism and Expressionism. Expressionism involved a painting. It involved animals walking in the sky, and it also showed heated heads popped like corks from overflowing bottles, while Post- Expressionism dealt with painting and pictures with frames (Roh 16-17). On the other hand, Angel Flores was a little hard fro me to understand at first. I found myself asking questions such as "Will I understand what I am reading?" "Is this going to make sense to me?" "What am I suppose to see in this American Fiction?" I did learn that magical realism has to deal with fantasies written in Spanish (Flores 110-111). Then looking at Amaryll Chanady, I learned that Flores stated that, "practitioners of magical realism clings to reality as if to prevent their myth from flying off, as in fairy tales, to supernatural realism." Luis Leal also has many different opinions toward magica l realism. However, I did not agree with a few of them. I did understand and agreed with a few, though. In Luis Leal's essay, I learned that Roh explained the origin of the term by saying that with the word "magical," as opposed to "mystical," he wanted to emphasize that the mystery does not descend to the represented world, but rather hides and palpitates behind it (120-121). I agreed with what he wanted to emphasize. It was also mentioned that magical realism is not magic literature. Magical realism is used to express emotions not to evoke them (120-121). I feel that magical realism is definitely used to express emotions, not to evoke them.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Ordinary People :: essays research papers
     â€Å"Why does the world go on when things like this happen?†, is a quote by Gerda Weissman Klein. This means that unfortunately, incidents that don’t always have a positive impact on our lives, can not hold us back from moving on, or the world form continuing its business. Ordinary People by Judith Guest is a fine example of when the world goes on when you experience a grief so great that you felt almost as if the world betrayed you continuing to allow the sun to rise every and the birds to sing in spite of your pain. Ordinary People deals with the hardships of one â€Å"ordinary†family’s day to day life.           Buck Jarret brother of Conrad and son of Calvin and Beth was sailing in bad conditions with his brother when their sailboat capsized. Conrad was most effected by this tragedy. Judith Guest uses characterization to reveal this pain that Conrad holds deep down inside. Conrad is so effected by this accident that he eventually attempts to commit suicide, however he is unsuccessful due to the fact that Calvin walked in on him. Conrad could not deal with the hardship of not having the brother he once had and loved. Conrad believed that the choice was his to decide whether or not he wanted to watch the sun rise or listen to the birds sing every morning . Calvin stated that there was one thing he did wrong and that was that â€Å"he stayed with the boat†.      Beth Jarret can be used as more of an indirect relation to this quote. Beth awoke one night to find Calvin missing from her bedside, when she went downstairs looking for him she found him sitting at the dining table crying. Calvin was upset at the fact that Beth fails to show affection for her son Conrad. Calvin stated â€Å"Its almost like you buried all of your love with Buck†. Calvin continued to explain how he has been thinking and he is not sure if he is in love with Beth anymore due to her actions. Guest uses very dramatic dialogue to develop the level of seriousness in this crucial conversation Calvin feels great pain over this situation but yet the sun rises the next morning only to bring an understanding between Conrad and Calvin.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Marketing Strategy of Ethiad Airways
Table of Contents 1. 0 Introduction 3 2. 0 External Environment Analysis3 2. 1 Porter’s Five Forces Analysis 3 2. 2 SWOT Analysis 5 3. 0 Marketing Strategy Analysis 6 3. 1 Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning 6 3. 1. 1 Segmentation 6 3. 1. 2 Targeting 6 3. 1. 3 Positioning 7 4. 0 Strategic Alliances 8 5. 0 Sponsorship 9 6. 0 Contribution to the Competitive Advantage and its Sustainability10 6. 1 Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning 10 6. 2 Strategic Alliances and Sponsorship 10 7. 0 Conclusion11 8. 0 References12 Word Count: 3282 1. 0 IntroductionEtihad Airways, the national airline of the United Arab Emirates, has in just eight years established itself as the world’s leading airline. Set up by Royal Decree in July 2003, Etihad commenced commercial operations in November 2003 and became the fastest growing airline in the history of commercial aviation (Etihad, 2012). Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates, is the airline’s hub. The airline seeks to reflect the best of Arabian hospitality – cultured, considerate, warm and generous – as well as enhance the prestige of Abu Dhabi as a centre of hospitality between East and West.However, nowadays it is very hard to maintain the business in such a competitive market in times of recovery from the recent recession. Therefore, it is crucial to understand that just providing a service is not enough. Firstly, this report overviews the external environment in which Etihad has to survive and compete, evaluating its main challenges and opportunities. Secondly, Etihad’s main marketing strategies will be identified and critically discussed. Thirdly, the extent to which adopted marketing strategies help to achieve and sustain the competitive advantage will be analysed.Finally, the conclusion will be drawn based on achieved knowledge and personal assumptions. 2. 0 External Environment Analysis For better understanding of the marketing strategy that Etihad uses, it is cr ucial to analyse the external environment in which the company operates. 2. 1 Porter’s Five Forces Analysis In order to examine the positioning strategy and forces of the external environment that may potentially affect the Etihad’s performance, it has been decided to adopt the classical Porter’s Five Forces model.By using this model, it is possible to judge the extent to which an external environment is able to shape the costs, the prices and the profits of the organisation (Porter, 1980). * Competitive rivalry in the industry – high In terms of competitors, Etihad Airlines’ main competitors are the companies operating in Middle East, which are Emirates Airlines, Quatar Airways and Gulf Air. These airlines operate in a higher price and quality spectrum than, for example, Air Arabia and are being direct competitors for each other (McKechnie et al. , 2008).Rivalry between these companies is very intensive, as there are a small number of competitors on the market. * Bargaining power of customers – low In order to have a significant amount of power in the industry, there should be a few customers who can dictate their rules to the organisations, as for example in some B2B cases. However, there are millions of customers, who are willing to fly to and from Middle East, where Etihad operates, therefore, customers have a very limited power. * Bargaining power of suppliers – high For the airlines organisations the main suppliers are the aircraft manufacturers and the oil companies.In both cases there are a very few of them. Therefore, airline industry companies have a very limited power over their suppliers. Additionally, as it has been announced by the International Air Transport Association (2008), the global airline industry possesses losses due to the increased oil prices which also decrease the industry’s profitability. * Threat of new entrants – low The threat of new entrants depends on the number an d complexity of the barriers to entry. The barrier of the starting capital or investment is extremely high in the airline industry.Also, there are a lot of legal or patents issues with opening and maintaining of the airline organisation, which also is a barrier to entry. The brand loyalty is another very important barrier to entry. When choosing the airlines, customers, especially â€Å"the high profile†ones, are being very careful about health and safety, comfort and other details, therefore tend to choose companies with the brand they trust. Overall, the threat of new entrants is low, because there is a number of very hard to overcome barriers to entry, and if the small company appears on the market, it tends to be absorbed by one of the major players in the industry. Threat of substitutes – low Airlines industry – being an important sector of travel and tourism industry will have such potential substitutes as the sea, railway and road types of transportation . However, as Etihad is operating in an upper-class prices level, the threat of substitutes would be fairly low. In terms of potential business travellers, the time would be more important than money for them. In terms of leisure tourists, the prices may matter, however, cruise ships’ tickets tend to be more expensive than the planes’ ones.Therefore, if the experience of cruising is not extremely important for the customers, they would prefer travelling by air. 2. 2 SWOT Analysis After looking at the overall external environment, it is important to evaluate Etihad’s main strengths and weaknesses, suggesting what opportunities and threats are there, by using a classical SWOT model. 1. Strengths: * Well settled airlines company, by February 2012, operating a fleet of 63 Airbus and Boeing aircraft (Etihad, 2012) * Over seven million travellers per year with 1000 flights a week, 84 destinations in 52 countries. * Global sponsorship of events and sports clubs. Freque nt-flyer program â€Å"Etihad Guest Programme†, considered being innovative, offering greater flexibility to its customers (McKechnie et al. , 2008). * Global Awards received in 2009 and 2010, as the world’s leading airline. * More than 30 awards received for service by the World Travel Awards (WTA) (Etihad, 2012). 2. Weaknesses: * Failure of the bid to sponsor Manchester United team. * Still fairly underdeveloped in comparison with company’s main competitors Emirates Airline (170 aircraft, 115 destinations) and Quatar Airways (132 aircraft, 100 destinations) (Emirates, 2012; Quatar, 2012). . Opportunities: * 100 aircraft on order, including 10 Airbus A380s, the world’s largest passenger aircraft (Etihad, 2012). * The location gives higher opportunities for growth and developments. United Arabic Emirates is a very rich country with extremely quickly growing business and tourism sectors, additionally UAE is a member of OPEC, which also may help with oil pr ices negotiations. 4. Threats: * Global rise of fuel prices. * Terrorists’ threats to airlines’ industry in general. 3. 0 Marketing Strategy AnalysisThe main component of the firm’s marketing strategy and the rationale for this strategy in light of the environmental conditions in which it operates; 3. 1 Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning In marketing, segmentation, targeting and positioning are inseparable as they all related to each other. Segmentation is dividing the market into different groups with similar needs. Targeting is determining which offerings to make to each market segment and then the final step is to position the brand within the target market (Hooley and Saunders, 1993).Traditionally, airlines segment their customers in order to align their product strategy according to the different segments (Teichert et al, 2008). 3. 1. 1 Segmentation Market Segmentation was defined by Baines et al (2008, p. 217) as the division of a market into differen t groups of customers with distinctly similar needs. Alternatively, Kotler et al (2005, p. 391) add that these groups of customers have different needs, characteristics and behaviours and they require different marketing or product mixes. Customers can be segmented according to geographic, demographic, psychographic and behaviour variables.Etihad segment their customers according to three different boarding classes, which are: Diamond First Class, Pearl Business Class and Coral Economy. Each class is aimed at a different customer segment. Diamond First Class is aimed at wealthy individuals and business people who are willing to maintain their luxurious lifestyle in the air. Pearl Business is targeted at business and leisure travellers who are willing to pay more to enjoy a better flying experience. Coral Economy is aimed at customers who are on a budget but willing to enjoy a comfortable flying experience with the highest level of service.It is worth noting that Etihad is a five sta r airline and provides the highest level of service. According to Milne (2009) Etihad segment their customers according to business, religious, personal and tourist purposes. The rationale behind Etihad’s segmentation is to appeal to all types of customers with different income levels. Based on the prices that Etihad charge, it is clear to see that they aim for the middle and upper class social sector customers who command high standards of hospitality and luxury. 3. 1. 2 TargetingOnce a company has segmented their customers into different groups based on their characteristics, the next step is to target their customers with products and services that might appeal to that particular customer segment. Etihad airlines follow a differentiated marketing approach which involves targeting several market segments and designing separate offers for each (Kotler et al, 2005, p. 419). Etihad is different from their rivals because they are smaller airline but they are a luxury brand and offer personalised services to all their customers in spite of what class they are travelling in.By differentiating the market, this might lead to higher sales volumes for Etihad because they are able to exploit the segments with their offerings. The benefits of the strategy are its difficulty for competitors to copy and the level of service cannot be obtained anywhere else by the customer. A disadvantage of the strategy is the high volume of resources required to meet the needs of different customers, resulting in a loss of economies of scales and increased operating costs for the company. 3. 1. Positioning A positioning strategy determines where the business competes, how it competes and the choice of differential advantage which dictates how it competes (Doyle and Stern, 2006, p. 84). Positioning is important for an organisation because it is a way for a business to stand out from its rivals and let the customers to identify the brand easily (Baines, 2008, p. 251). Etihad positio ns itself within the airline industry as a luxury brand which offers 5 star hospitality and luxury personalised service.Etihad’s on-board services are hospitality orientated and are similar to those of 5 star hotels. The airline industry is very competitive and it is hard to differentiate between the quality of services because they almost the same and there is not much of a distinctive difference between them. Etihad has a competitive advantage in this market by starting out as a luxury brand form the outset. Other airlines are now trying to raise their standards but this will take a long time to achieve. Etihad is positioned at the high end of the airline industry.In comparison to RyanAir and Easyjet, these airlines are at two extremes of the scale and it is clear that Etihad does have a strategy that makes it different from all the airlines on the market. Because Etihad has positioned itself well within the industry, it has capitalised on its uniqueness. The company achiev ed a huge success in the short time of operating and established a strong sustainable market position. Looking at the STP of Etihad in the light of the environmental conditions in which it operates, it is clear to see that the conditions are a little bit tough due to competition from cheaper airlines and the gloomy economic outlook.Due to the recession, people are tightening their belts and spending less, therefore most people would prefer to pay less to fly to their chosen destinations. This is where Etihad stand to lose out to cheaper airline companies. 40% of their revenue comes from economy class seats, therefore if they price themselves too high in these current economic conditions, they risk losing a huge chunk of their revenue to other airlines because customers will always go for the cheaper airline ticket. In terms of competition, Emirates & Qatar Airways are Etihad’s biggest competitors, fighting for the same customers.Also these two companies are more established a nd have a bigger customer base than Etihad. Etihad is still a very young company being vulnerable to competition. However, it seems they are doing very well and recently broke even, planning to expand, while maintaining their current market position. All this can be accredited to their solid marketing strategy which they are using to maximise their benefit and strengthen their position within this market. 4. 0 Strategic Alliances Strategic alliances reduce the boundaries between firms and enable easier flow of knowledge across those boundaries.This process creates the possibility for organisations to share administrative authority, form social links and joint ventures (Badaracso, 1991). One of the reasons why firms engage in strategic alliances includes sufficient resources, low pace of innovation, low technology, high manufacturing cost and market access (Doz, 1996). Another reason to collaborate in strategic alliances is to create a competitive advantage over competitors in the ma rket (Lei and Slocum, 2005). Also, strategic alliance help companies to bring their products on to the new innovation level (Zhang, 2010).The advantage of strategic alliances is to share the risk and cost of products. Firms join strategic alliances for compiling technologies and assets, enhancing easier access to resources and technologies (Ohmae, 1989). Firms could assure the sufficiency of their resources, that the new technologies to maintain their advantages with the strategic alliances (Ireland, et al. , 2002). The disadvantages of strategic alliances is that organisations might give their partners more than they gain, the exchange of resources, benefits and knowledge should be reciprocated between the firms.Organizations could stand the chance of losing their competitive advantages if they provide benefits such as resources, knowledge and technology. Most strategic alliances don’t maintain their cooperative relationships for a long term as most strategic alliances are b ased on the current benefits rather than future competitive advantages. Also, in strategic alliances, the effect of competition can lead to aggressive knowledge acquisition from partner firms (Kaplan, et al. , 2010). Notably, many alliances fail as a result of inter firm rivalry (Park and Ungson, 2001).When firms merely pursue self-interests (competition) but neglect common benefits (derived from cooperation), partner firms may lose motivation to continue the alliance. Implementing any organisational alliance successfully depends upon a firm’s knowledge and ability to manage interdependencies with a partner through on-going coordination with that partner, to credibly convey relevant information and knowledge to the partner, and to develop social bonds with the partner (Ireland, et al. , 2002).Strategic alliance between airlines, as defined by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), is â€Å"a merging of resources, operations, of financial interests between [one] entity an d [another] entity (Vander-Kraats, 1993). This entity could be an air carrier or a repair station and could involve the sharing of parts or the utilization of mechanics, pilots, and flight attendants†. Some of the strategic alliance adopted by Etihad can include code-sharing agreements, marketing arrangements, procurement policies, system commonality, and interchanges of flight-crew personnel and sponsorship with other major organisation (Vander-Kraats, 1993).Etihad pursuit of code sharing agreement has become a key part of its marketing strategy. A codeshare agreement, sometimes simply codeshare, is an aviation business arrangement where two or more airlines share the same flight. A seat can be purchased on one airline but is actually operated by a cooperating airline under a different flight number or code. Etihad has a major partnership with Virgin Blue’s group of airlines which enables Virgin Blue’s international brand â€Å"V Australia†to op erate joint services with Etihad. Combined, these two airlines offer joint networks of more than 100 destinations (Etihad, 2012).To succeed, alliance partners must encourage true collaboration beyond the formal governance structure and learn how to adapt and integrate knowledge acquired from the alliance to serve the specific needs of their own innovative efforts (Hughes and Weiss, 2007). Through these alliances Etihad strengthen their core-competence such as stronger brand name, and capture a stronger client base. 5. 0 Sponsorship Etihad’s sponsorships portfolio includes sports and major tourism events in the U. A. E and different regions in the world.Commercial sponsorships is defined as a cash investment in an activity, person or event, while in return gaining the access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that activity or person by the investor (Meenagham, 1991). Sponsorships provide the mechanism for changing, adjusting or reinforcing brand equity sup ported on updated processing of attributes, benefits and attitudes (Keller, 1998). Corporate sponsorships are used to enhance the brand equity by raising awareness and creating positive brand associations in the mind of consumers (Gwinner and Eaton, 1999; Meenagham, 1991).This highlights the effects and significance of strong brands as it possesses the ability to attract a wide audience. The advantages of sponsorships include the promotion of caring attitude and goodwill. The good example of successful sponsorship is Etihad’s stadium and Etihad’s association with Manchester city and a football team which attracts a wide audience (Etihad, 2012). The disadvantage of sponsorships is that the investments made by the sponsors do not always guarantee that the objectives will be achieved.In the case of Etihad, investing in sport teams can backfire if they don’t meet the expectations the firm had for their performance. The final disadvantage of sponsorships involves any bad publicity derived from the benefactor will inevitably affect the brand name associated. 6. 0 Contribution to the Competitive Advantage and its Sustainability After analysing Etihad’s main marketing strategies, the discussion below will be about how each of the components of these strategies contributes to the firm’s competitive advantage. 6. Segmentation, Positioning and Targeting Segmentation gives Etihad a competitive advantage because it helps them differentiate and understand their customers’ needs more and helps improve their offering to the different types of customers. By understanding their customers’ needs better, they can gain an advantage over their rivals. On the other hand, every airline segments their customers according to the different classes therefore there is not much of an advantage since they all have a similar system of segmenting their customers.Etihad’s positioning gives them a competitive advantage because they positio n themselves as a 5 star airline offering 5 star hotel quality services on board. Their service on board is what sets them apart from their competitors. This advantage is sustainable in the long run provided they maintain their high standards throughout. Also, in terms of positioning, Etihad found a â€Å"gap†in the market by using Abu Dhabi Airport as their base rather than Dubai airport because of the cheaper airport fees and taxes which gives them a cost saving competitive advantage.By targeting a specific demographic, Etihad’s marketing campaigns are likely to be more cost and time efficient as it will be highly relevant to the target market’s needs and it enables them to stand out from their competitors. 6. 2 Strategic Alliances and Sponsorships Strategic alliances have enabled Etihad to create a competitive advantage in their industry and make this advantage sustainable. Etihad engage in strategic alliances as a way of seeking to reduce competition in the ir quest to raise profits (Badaracco, 1991). These alliances have nabled the company to share the risks associated with the ventures because some projects are too complicated for Etihad to handle on their own. (Badaracco, 1991). By collaborating with other firms worldwide, Etihad are overcoming barriers to entry in new geographical markets since they are a growing company looking to expand globally. Organizations expanding overseas find that they require a local partner due to unfamiliarity with the local conditions (Badaracco, 1991). Strategic alliances enable firms to exchange favours such as improving product quality, technologies and factors related to products.Sustainable competitive advantage indicates that companies could maintain their completive advantage for a long term (Culpan, 2008). Through their strategic alliance with Sabre in December 2011, Etihad gained access to integrated software across its reservations, inventory marketing and e-commerce, distribution and depart ure control operations. The benefits from this alliance included improved joint market share which has the potential to generate over $25 million dollars per annum for both companies (Etihad, 2012). . 0 Conclusion This report attempts to analyse the environment in which Etihad Airways Company has to maintain its business profitable and prosperous. The report covers main marketing strategies and tools Etihad uses for the purpose of identifying and understanding its customers’ base and keeping a relationship with it. Finally, the extent to which these marketing strategies help to keep the business and its competitive advantages sustainable is evaluated and critically accessed. 8. 0 References Abecassis-Moedas, C. nd c-Jouini, S. (2008), â€Å"Absorptive Capacity and Source-Recipient Complementarity in Designing New Products: An Empirically Derived Framework,† Journal of Product Innovation Management, 25(5), pp. 473–90. Badaracco, J. (1991), The Knowledge Lin k: How Firms Compete through Strategic Alliances, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Baines, P. , Fill, C. and Page, K. (2008), Marketing, 1st ed. , New York: Oxford Press. Bucyk, C. (2012), â€Å"James Hogan Etihad Airways CEO Interview†, Air Transport World, Jan. , p 50-51. Culpan, R. 2008), â€Å"The role of strategic alliances in gaining sustainable competitive advantage for firms†, Management Revue, 19(1/2), pp. 94-105. Doyle, P. and Stern, P. (2006), Marketing Management and Strategy. 4th Ed. , Pearson: Prentice Hall. Doz, Y. L. (1996), â€Å"The Evolution of Cooperation in Strategic Alliances: Initial Conditions or Learning Processes? †Strategic Management Journal, 17(Summer), pp. 55-83. Emirates Airways (2012), [Online] Available at: www. emirates. com (Accessed on: 22 March 2012). Etihad Airways (2009), Corporate Facts and Figures, [Online] Available at: www. tihadairways. com (Accessed on: 22 March 2012). Etihad Airways (2012), [Online] A vailable at: www. etihadairways. com (Accessed on: 22 March 2012). Gwinner, K. P. , and Eaton, J. (1999), â€Å"Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship: The Role of Image Transfer†, Journal of Advertising, 28 (4), pp. 47-57. Hooley, G. J. and Saunders, J. (1993), Competitive Positioning: A Key To Market Positioning, Pearson: Prentice Hall. Hughes, J and Weiss, J. (2007), â€Å"Simple Rules for Making Alliances Work,† Harvard Business Review, 85 (November), pp. 122–31. Ireland, R. , Michael, D.Hitt, A. , and Vaidyanath, D. (2002), â€Å"Alliance Management as a Source of Competitive Advantage,† Journal of Management, 28(3), pp. 413–46. Kaplan, R. S. , David P. Norton, and Rugelsjoen, B. (2010), â€Å"Managing Alliances with the Balanced Scorecard†, Harvard Business Review, 88 (January–February), pp. 114–120. Kotler, P. , Wong, V. , Saunders, J. and Armstrong, G (2005), Principles of Marketing. 4th ed. Londo n: Prentice Hall. Kotler, W. K. (2009), â€Å"Advantage competition of inter-partner learning in International Strategic Alliance†, The Journal of Global Business, 3(2), pp. 23-128. Lei, D. and Slocum, J. W. Jr (2005), â€Å"Strategic and organizational requirements for competitive advantage†, Academy of Management Executive, 19(1), pp. 31-45. McKechnie, D. S. , Grant, J. , and Katsioloudes, M. (2008), â€Å"Positions and positioning: strategy simply stated†, Business Strategy Series, 9(5), pp. 224 – 230, [Online] Available at: http://www. emeraldinsight. com (Accessed on: 20 March 2010). Meenagham, T. (1991). â€Å"Sponsorship-Legitimising the Medium†, European Journal of Marketing, 25(11), pp. 5-10 Milne, D. 2009), â€Å"King of the Skies†, [Online] Available at: http://www. businessmanagementme. com (Accessed on: 20 March 2010). Ohmae, K. (1989), â€Å"The Global Logic of Strategic Alliances,† Harvard Business Review, 67 (Marchà ¢â‚¬â€œApril), pp. 143-154. Park, S. H. and Ungson, G. R. (2001). ‘Interfirm rivalry and managerial complexity: A conceptual framework of alliance failure’, Organization Science, 12, pp. 37 – 53. Porter, M. E. (1980), Competitive Strategy, New York: Free Press. Quatar Airways (2012), [Online] Available at: www. quatarairways. om (Accessed on: 22 March 2012). Teichert, T. , Shehu, E. and Von Wartburg, I. (2008), â€Å"Customer Segmentation Revisited: A Case Study of the Airline Industry†. Transportation Research, A(42), pp. 227-242. Vander Kraats, S. A. , (1993), â€Å"Gaining a Competitive Edge through Airline Alliances†, Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal, incorporating Journal of Global Competitiveness, 10(2), pp. 56 – 64. [Online] Available at: http://www. emeraldinsight. com (Accessed on: 23 March 2010). Zhang, H. Shu, c. Jiang, Malta, A. 2010), â€Å"Managing  Knowledge for Innovation  the Role of Co-o peration, Competition, and Alliance  Nationality†, Journal of International  Marketing  Association, 18, pp. 74-94. 1. Presentation and Style (10 marks) | Mark range| Mark| The work is well structured and has a logical and well ordered flow between issues. Language used is sophisticated and articulate. Referencing is consistent and uses the Harvard method. | 8-10| | There is a clear underlying structure to the work which makes it easy to read and understand. Referencing is consistent. 6-7| | The work is acceptably presented and has a clear structure. The arguments are clearly expressed although the language and terminology used lacks sophistication. Referencing is consistent. | 5| | The work lacks a central narrative which links the issues discussed together in a coherent way. Referencing is haphazard. | 4| | The work has no real structure and is more a collection of loosely related issues than anything. Referencing is haphazard and weak. There are errors of spelling, grammar and punctuation. | 0-3| | 2. Use of Appropriate Models and Concepts (25 marks) | Mark range| Mark|A clear and sensible choice of models and concepts has been made with which to carry out analysis. The models are used well and develop clear and robust analysis which shows an excellent understanding of the model and how it can be applied. | 18-25| | A good choice of models and concepts is made and these models and concepts are used appropriately and correctly. Conclusions may be drawn from the use of models but these conclusions lack a little in terms of sophistication. | 15-17| | Models chosen are appropriate to the example under discussion but the analysis derived from them is weak or superficial.The use of models does little more than rearrange or repackage information about the company. | 12-14| | The use of models is haphazard and there is no clear rationale for why they have been chosen. The models deliver limited analysis and offer few if any insights into the example under discussion. | 10-11| | Limited or no use of models is demonstrated. Information about the company and its environment is simply described and there is nothing to guide or focus the analysis| 0-9| | 3. Evidence of Research about the Company and its Business Environment (25 marks) | Mark range| Mark|The assignment uses a variety of sources, all of them reliable, to provide an excellent level of detail. A systematic approach is taken to the gathering of evidence and information about the company and its environment. Discussions are supported by robust evidence throughout. | 18-25| | A good selection of sources are used to provide information about the company and its environment and these are used to reach sound conclusions| 15-17| | Different sources may be used to gather information but there is no real attempt made to distinguish between the quality of information presented.The use of information is unstructured and haphazard and provides a limited base for conclusion s and discussion. | 12-14| | Whilst there is some information provided about the company, it will tend to be anecdotal and lacking in robustness. There is no real evidence of a systematic approach to gathering information. Conclusions reached do not reflect the quality of evidence provided. | 10-11| | The assignment is too reliant on just one or two sources of information about the company and no attempt is made to examine the reliability and quality of those sources.Material presented is accepted uncritically and without question. | 0-9| | 4. Discussion and Analysis (25 marks) | Mark range| Mark| The assignment has a clear focus on the question posed and answers it using sophisticated analysis and discussion which combines theory, models and robust data. There is a clear structure and line of argument throughout the assignment. | 18-25| | The assignment contains some good discussion and analysis. There is an attempt to integrate theory, models and evidence. There is some structure to the assignment and a focus on the assignment requirements. 15-17| | There is a blend of analysis and description but the assignment overall leans towards the descriptive rather than the analytical. Models may be used but there is no real attention paid to how theory can develop analysis and insights. At times, the assignment fails to focus on the question posed. | 12-14| | The assignment lacks a clear structure which focuses on the question posed and is mainly descriptive with no real analytical content. The assignment focuses on what has happened and makes no real attempt to use theory, models or evidence to explain why it may have happened and the implications of such things.The work is mainly descriptive. | 10-11| | The assignment is little more than a collection of loosely related points about a company and the environment in which it operates. There is no integration between theory, models and evidence at all. | 0-9| | 5. Conclusions (15 marks) | Mark range| Mark| Conclusion s reached are robust, clear and an accurate reflection of the preceding sections of the report. Conclusions draw together the different strands of theory and practice developed in the assignment. The conclusions show a high level of understanding of marketing strategy. 10-15| | Conclusions are a good reflection of the assignment overall and round things off in a clear and competent manner. An understanding of marketing strategy is demonstrated but differentiating between important and less important issues needed development. | 8-9| | Reflections are a reasonable reflection of the work in the main body of the assignment. No real distinction is shown between important and less important issues but there is an adequate understanding of marketing strategy demonstrated. 6-7| | Conclusions do little more than restate what was in the main body of the assignment and so lack impact. No distinction is made between important and less important issues and limited understanding of the subject m atter is demonstrated. | 4-5| | Conclusions are weak, underdeveloped and have no real relationship with the work which preceded them. Conclusions do not suggest an understanding of either the theory or practice of marketing strategy. | 0-3| | Overall Comments: Key Strengths Key Weaknesses and areas of improvement| | Final Assignment Grade (including Mark Contribution)| |
Admission Cardiotocography Essay
Admission cardiotocogram refers to the recording of the fetal heart after women admits into the labour ward. The significance of this recording lies in the fact that it can detect any early deficiency and malfunctioning that can be intervened for further treatment. During normal labour uterine contractions put some stress on placental circulation. This produces specific normal rhythms. However, any abnormality in this rhythm can be indicative of malfunction. Early detection of any potential threat may allow intervention and treatment at appropriate step. If admission cardiotocogram appears to be normal it gives hope for having a normal delivery. However, admission cardiotocography may not be necessary in cases where there is no evidence of any complications during pregnancies. â€Å"Admission cardiotocography is widely used to identify pregnancies that might benefit from continuous electronic fetal monitoring in labour.†(Impey et al, 2003) Impey et al (2003) reported that 20 min of cardiotocography does not have any beneficial impact on neonatal outcomes. â€Å"Routine use of cardiotocography for 20 min on admission to the delivery ward does not improve neonatal outcome. No significant increase in operative delivery was apparent, probably because of liberal use of fetal blood sampling.†(Impey et al, 2003) Evidence available tomorrow Current midwifery practice References Impey L; Reynolds M; MacQuillan K; Gates S; Murphy J; Sheil O (2003) Admission cardiotocography: a randomised controlled trial. Oxford Feto-Maternal Medicine Unit, Women’s Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford, UK.
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